The conception of poverty and what to do about it have changed over the de¬cades. Under Social Darwinism（社会达尔文主义）the lazy and the inefficient were supposed to be at the bottom of the economic ladder as a consequence of the "law of survival of the fittest（适者生存的法则）." Society was conceived as a network of self-sufficient families which provided for their own. Needy persons outside a household (orphans, childless elderly, and the crippled) were provided outdoor relief grudgingly（勉强地）and as a temporary expedient（权宜之计）. Although it was agreed the "poor will always be with us," the individual was expected to improve himself through acts of his own will. Charity（施舍，慈善）was thought to be encouraged to work harder.

At about the turn of the century, the closing of the frontier and the beginning of con¬cern about natural resources brought uneasiness about the possible spread of beggary（赤贫，乞讨）. The poor were a potentially dangerous class in terms of disease and disorder. The "poor" were seen as different from "paupers（贫民）." Paupers were individuals well adjusted to being on the low end of the socioeconomic scale（社会经济刻度）. Without shame or bitterness, they would not seek independence and a "better life." For the mountaineers, subsistence（勉强糊口的）dwellers, and some slum dwellers, the lack of wealth, it has been argued, reflects a preference not to pay the psychological costs（心理成本）of the struggle for riches or of adopting the middle-class work ethic（职业道德）of striving. In contrast, the worthy poor（值得尊敬的穷人）struggled to improve their lot（命运）against circumstances beyond their control: low wages, sickness, industrial accidents, widowhood, and so on.(254 words)