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●
Sense Relations and Semantic
Field
●●Introduction
Words
are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as their outer
facet-spelling and pronunciation, is concerned. But semantically, all
words are related in one way or another. A word which is related to other
words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations. The subjects
that have long held the interest and attention of semanticists are polysemy,
homonymy,
synonymy,
antonymy
and hyponymy.
These will be discussed in this chapter. Moreover, the discussion will
also cover semantic field, which is commonly felt to be an integral part
of sense relations.
●● Polysemy
6.1
Polysemy
Polysemy
is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. This is particularly
true of highly developed languages like English. In modern English, an
overwhelming majority of words are polysemous. A casual glance of any
pages of an English dictionary will justify the fact. There are words
that have two or three senses, and the most commonly used ones can have
as many as over a hundred. However, when a word is first coined, it is
always monosemic. But in the course of development, the same symbol must
be used to express more meanings. The result is polysemy. But how does
a word acquire new meanings? In what way are the meanings related to one
another?
●●● Two approaches
6.1.1
Two Approaches to Polysemy
The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word
can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic
approach.
1.
Diachronic
approach. From the diachronic point of view, polysemy
is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic
structure of one and same word. At the time when the word was created,
it was endowed with only one meaning. This first meaning is the primary
meaning. With the advance of time and the development of language, it
took on more and more meanings. These later meanings are called derived
meanings as they are all derived from the primary meaning. Take the word
face for example (WNWD).
(1)
the front of the head;
(2)
the expression of the countenance;
(3)
a surface of a thing;
(4)
the side or surface that is marked , as of a clock, playing
card,
domino, etc.;
(5)
the appearance; outward aspect; resemblance;
(6)
[CH idiom] dignity; self-respect; prestige, as in lose
/save
face;
(7)
the topography (of an area);
(8)
the functional and striking surface (of a tool, golf club, etc.);
(9)
[Colloq] effrontery; audacity;
(10)
what is shown by the language of a document, without explanation and addition;
(11)
[Mining] the end of a tunnel, drift, etc. where work is being done;
(12)
[Typography] the type surface on which a letter is cut.
Of
the twelve meanings spelled out above, (1) is the primary meaning the
basic meaning of the word face. All the rest are derived later
on from the primary meaning. These meanings were acquired by extension,
narrowing, analogy, transfer, etc.
There
are also many instances in which the primary meaning gave birth to new
meanings, and as a result the primary meaning became either obsolete or
disappeared altogether. For example, the basic sense of the word harvest
was 'time of cutting', now the word is used in the sense of 'reaping and
gathering the crops' or 'a season's yield of grain or fruit', etc. The
primary meaning is no longer in common use. Another good example is pain,
whose original meaning was 'penalty or punishment', and now this meaning
is preserved only in such phrases as pains and penalty and upon/under
pain of, the derived meanings 'suffering', 'great discomfort of the
body or mind' have become prevalent.
2.
Synchronic
approach. Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the
coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical
period of time, say, Modern English. In this way, the primary meaning
of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning. The
derived meanings, no matter how many, are secondary in comparison. In
the case of the word face, (1) is the central meaning and all the
rest are minor ones. This does not necessarily mean that the secondary
meanings are secondary in importance. There are cases where the central
meaning has gradually diminished in currency with the changes that have
taken place in culture and society, and one of the derived meanings has
become dominant. This can be exemplified by the word gay. The word
used to mean (1) joyous and lively; merry; happy; (2) bright, brilliant;
(3) given to social life and pleasure; (4) wanton; licentious; (5) homosexual
(WNWD). The order of the senses indicates the development, the
first meaning being the basic and primary and the last the latest. But
in usage and currency, the opposite is true. In both CCELD and
LDCE, Sense (5) is arranged as No. 1 because it is rated as the
most frequently used meaning. Compare:
gay:
(1) joyous and lively; merry; happy
(2)
bright, brilliant
(3)
given to social life and pleasure
(4)
wanton; licentious
(5)
homosexual (WNWD)
gay:
(1) homosexual
(2)
bright or attractive
(3)
cheerful; happy; full of fun (LDCE)
gay:
(1) homosexual
(2)
lively and enjoyable (person)
(3)
lively and interesting (place)
(4)
bright and pretty (colour)
(5)
lively and pleasant (music) (CCELD)
●●●
Two processes
6.1.2 Two Processes of Development
The
development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses,
traditionally known as radiation
and concatenation.
1.
Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands
at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction
like rays. The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be
traced back to the central meaning. If we give a graphic description of
the meanings of face, it would look very much like a wheel of the bicycle.
图（见课本）
Radiation of meanings of face
The
word neck affords another good example. The primary meaning is
(1) that part of man or animal joining the head to the body; from this
are derived (2) that part of the garment; (3) the neck of an animal used
as food, e.g. the neck of lamb; (4) a narrow part between the head
and body or base of any object, e.g. the neck of a violin; (5)
the narrowest part of anything: bottle, land, strait or channel (WNWD).
Though the referent of each of the five may not be the same, yet they
are all related to the central meaning. Meaning (2) is an instance of
transfer, (3) an instance of specialization, and (4) and (5) are instances
of extension.
2.
Concatenation, meaning 'linking together', is the semantic process
in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense
by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection
between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had
at the beginning (Rayevskaya 1957) or between the first sense and the
latest. In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted
a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally
lost. The word treacle is an illustrative example (WNWD):
treacle
(1)
wild beast
(2)
remedy for bites of venomous beasts
(3)
antidote for poison or remedy for poison
(4)
any effective remedy
(5)
(BrE) molasses
Unlike
radiation where each of the derived meanings is directly connected to
the primary meaning, concatenation describes a process where each of the
later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though
the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct
connection in between. Now consider the senses of treacle. Senses
(1) and (2) are now entirely lost; (3) and (4) are obsolete, and only
(5) remains common in use. Without a knowledge of etymology of the word,
no one can make any connection between Sense (1) and Sense (5). The same
can be said of candidate (ibid):
candidate
(1)
white-robed
(2)
office seeker in white gowns
(3)
a person who seeks an office
(4)
a person proposed for a place, award, etc.
Radiation
and concatenation are closely related, being different stages of the development
leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many
cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.
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