I. Definition of speech acts

In linguistic communication, people do not merely exchange information. They actually do something through talking or writing in various circumstances. Actions performed via speaking are called speech acts.

II. The constative –performative dichotomy

1. Definition

Constative used to convey something.

Performative: the utterance of the sentence is performing an action. A performative is characterized by the “first person singular, present tense, indicative mood, active voice”.

2. There are two sets which can roughly mark the distinction:

1) By inserting the word “hereby” in an utterance. The insertion, if the performative verb is available, won’t make the read with oddity:

I hereby smoke. *

I hereby promise to pay you $20.

2) By using the formula: “in saying “I V.…” “I was V-ing”” e.g. I promise, I was promising.

By distinguishing performative and constative he made the point that not all sentences can be analyzed in terms of true or false.

III. The trichotomy of speech acts

1. Locutionary speech act: the act of producing a meaningful linguistics expression is called locutionary act.

2. Illocutionary speech act: the act of communication intention through the utterance is termed as illocutionary act.

3. Perlocutionary speech act: the act of bring out an effect is known as perlocutionary act.

If a teacher says, “I have run out of chalk” in the process of lecturing, the act of saying is locutionary, the act of demanding for chalk is illocutionary, and the effect the utterance brings about – one of the students will go and get some chalk – is perlocutionary. •

In English, illocutionary acts are also given specific labels, such as request, warning, promise, invitation, compliment, complaint, apology, offer, refusal, etc. these specific labels name various speech functions. In linguistic communication people respond to an illocutionary act of an utterance, because it is the meaning intended by the speaker. •

IV. Taxonomy of speech acts

1. Austin distinguished five types of illocutionary acts to their illocutionary force.

1) Verdictive: give judgments or verdicts like acquit, judge, etc.

2) Exercitives: exercise right, like advise, warn, etc.

3) Commissives: commit the speaker to doing something, like promise, swear, etc.

4) Behabitives: express attitudes, like apologize, criticize, etc.

5) Expositive, clarify how an utterance influence its fits into on-going talk, like affirm, inform, etc.

2. Searle classifies speech act into five categories:

1) Assertive: the speaker is thinking of something that he/she intends for the hearer to believe. E.g. the earth is round.

2) Directives: The speaker tries to get the hearer to do something. E.g. close the door.

3) Commissive: the speaker is committed, in varying degrees, to a certain course of action. E.g. I’ll be back very soon.

4) Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affair. E.g. I’m terribly sorry.

5) Declaration: the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object or situation by making the utterance. E.g. you are fired.

As functions may not correspond to forms, speech acts can be direct and indirect.

3. Indirect speech acts

Indirect speech acts are those in which there is no correspondence between a structure and a function. E.g. It’s cold in here. Indirect speech acts are made for politeness, not vice versa.

Direct speech acts perform a function that corresponds to the structure of an utterance. E.g.Close the door.

Direct speech acts are straightforward, whereas indirect speech acts are polite.